Table 3 Changes in EV characteristics upon different forms of kidney disease

AKI

EC-EVs ↑, plt-EVs ↑ [35]

uEVs: AQP1 ↓, fetuin-A ↑, ATF3 ↑ [36,37,38]

▪ Sepsis

▪ leu-EVs ↑ (B-EVs, Mo-EVs, PMN-EVs, T-EVs) [42,43,44,45,46,47,48]

protein: A2MG ↑, β2-integrin ↑, EPCR ↑, PD-L2 ↑, PS ↑, TF ↑, thrombomodulin ↑ [46, 47, 52, 53, 55, 57, 62]

miRNA: miR-21-5p ↓, miR-193a-5p ↓ [64]

mRNA: MPO ↑, FOXM1 ↑, SELS ↑, GLRX2 ↑, PRDX3 ↑, SOD2 ↑ [65]

Sepsis-AKI: PS⁺ EVs ↑, PS⁺ plt-EVs ↑, PS⁺/CD13⁺ EVs ↑, β2-integrin ↑ [57]

▪ leu-EVs: bacterial growth ↓ [43]

A2MG⁺ PMN-EVs: bacterial load ↓, hypothermia ↓, leukocyte count ↓ (peritoneal exudate, lung tissue), mortality ↓ [63]

thrombin ↑, factor X ↑ [42, 47]

heart, lung: eNOS ↑, SOD ↑, iNOS ↑, COX-2 ↑, NF-κB ↑ [66]

liver: eNOS ↓, SOD2 ↓, COX-2 ↓, I-κBα phosphorylation ↓ [66]

▪ HUS

▪ leu-EVs ↑, plt-EVs ↑, RBC-EVs ↑, C3⁺ and C9⁺ EVs (plt, Mo, Nφ) ↑ [70,71,72]

protein: C3 ↑, C9 ↑, TF ↑ [72, 75]

▪ plt-EVs, Mo-EVs, Nφ-EVs, RBC-EVs: Stx transport and uptake into renal ECs, podocytes, tubular epithelium [77]

CKD

EC-EVs ↑, PS⁺ (EC-) EVs ↑ [81, 82, 84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91]

protein: GRP ↓, fetuin-A ↓ [97]

miRNA: miR-223 ↑ [81]

uEVs: CD2-associated protein mRNA ↓ [98]

thrombin ↑, osteocalcin ↑ (VSMCs, EPCs, fibroblasts), VSMC osteochondrogenic differentiation and inflammation ↑, VSMC calcification ↑, angiogenesis ↓, EC apoptosis ↑, endothelium-dependent relaxation ↓, endothelial cGMP and NO ↓ [81, 82, 87, 91, 97]

miR-223⁺ EVs: VSMC calcification ↑, angiogenesis ↓, EC apoptosis ↑ [81]