Table 1 Summary of bioinspired synthetic EVs generated by cell fragmentation, supramolecular chemistry or biohybrid approaches, and inorganic NPs used in the context of sepsis
From: Bioengineered extracellular vesicles: future of precision medicine for sepsis
Starting material | Preparation method | Cargo | Particle characterization | Biological effect | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bioinspired synthetic EVs | |||||
 Human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells | Cell fragmentation: nitrogen cavitation + differential UC | TPCA-1 | Size: ~ 200 nm (cryo-TEM) ζ-potential: − 16 mV | Reduction of lung inflammation | [122] |
 Human monocyte U397 cells | Cell fragmentation: alkaline solution + sonication + UC | Dexamethasone | Size: 130 nm (DLS) | Reduction of IL-8 levels and mitigation of SIRS | [121] |
 MSCs | Cell fragmentation: serial extrusion (10, 5 and 1 μm) + DGUC | – | Size: 50–150 nm (TEM) | Decrease of inflammatory cytokines levels and immunomodulatory effect | [124] |
 Polymers (HA, PEI) | Supramolecular chemistry: polymer coupling and self-assembly | miR-7651-5p, miR-615-5p, miR-6239, miR-690, miR-206-3p, miR-466i-5p and miR-146a-5p | Size: ~ 100 nm | Reduction of TNF-α and IL-6 levels and relief of LPS-induced sepsis | [127] |
 Lipids (DPPC, DOPC, cholesterol) and membrane proteins from leukocytes | Supramolecular chemistry: mixing and assembly | – | Size: 94 nm (DLS) ζ-potential: − 27 mV | Decrease of IL-6, IL-1b and TNF-α, rise of IL-10 and TGF-β, and prolongation of murine survival | [128] |
 Amphotericin B-loaded liposomes | Commercial product | Amphotericin B | Size: 103 nm (DLS) ζ-potential: − 54 mV | Identification of sepsis biomarkers for diagnosis purposes | [129] |
 Polymer (Biotin-PEG-b-PAE(-g-PEG-b-DSPE)-b-PEG-Biotin) | Supramolecular chemistry: polymerization and self-assembly | Ciprofloxacin and TPCA-1 | Size: 120 nm at pH = 7.4 (DLS) | Decrease in the number of leukocytes, bacteria and inflammatory cytokines, and mitigation of systemic inflammation | [130] |
 Macrophage membrane + lipids (PC and DSPE-PEG2000) | Biohybrid strategy: stirring + sonication + extrusion (800, 400 and 200 nm) | – | Size: 203 nm (DLS) ζ-potential: − 23 mV | Elimination of LPS and reduction of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α levels | [134] |
Inorganic NPs | |||||
 Fe3O4 NPs, chlorin e6 and aptamer | Fe3O4 NPs synthesis: thermal decomposition; EDC/NHS covalent coupling between Fe3O4 NPs, chlorin e6 and aptamer | – | Size: 17 nm (TEM) ζ-potential: − 10 mV | Detection, death and separation of bacteria from contaminated blood | [136] |
 Ceria NPs with mPEG-TK-PLGA coating | Ceria NPs synthesis: sol–gel; emulsion for polymer conjugation | Atorvastatin | Size: 43 nm (DLS) ζ-potential: − 4 mV | Suppression of excessive ROS levels in mitochondria and reduction of inflammation | [137] |